Cold War Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Cold War Final - Essay Example Somewhere in the range of 1947 and 1991, the Soviet Union looked up to the United States and its partners in a political pressure that undermined the tranquility of other uninvolved countries. With the two gatherings having atomic capacities, the world almost endured because of contrasts. While none of the two really occupied with military assaults against one another, dangers were given as discretionary lines seethed on (Totten, 2013). Tragically, despite the fact that the column included just two gatherings, whatever else occurred on the planet was to a great extent directed by the situations developing between the two. War-whether genuine or cold-is a burden to instruction, and if could be stayed away from, that is the most ideal choice. Totten (2013) claims that the status of US training and the world everywhere was incredibly influenced by the deadlock. Before the war heightened, the impacts were not felt that much however that circumstance changed as the power of the war took higher than ever. Unfortunately, the flashpoints saw during this war were given to the kids henceforth influencing their lives contrarily. Subsequently, the relations between the understudies from the nations at war communicated comparable perspectives to every in this way polarizing the training status. Incredible dread held onto the Western nations and their individual residents with many dreading the most exceedingly awful as far as monetary status (Richards, 2012). Many expected that Russia’s monetary profits would compound the issue; the US dreaded control of the remainder of the world by Russia. Thus, every side attempted however much as could reasonably be expected to amass its partners on the off chance that the war turned fierce. Besides, emergency happening somewhere else on the planet saw every one of the side help one and contradict the other with stakes. Today, however the force of the war is not even close to that time, Bayulgen and Arbatli (2013) guarantee that there is as yet a virus war between the US and Russia. As of late, the US has

When It Comes To Paper Writing Services

When It Comes To Paper Writing ServicesFor your next essay or report, you will need professional paper writing service. Find out if you should just throw it all together in a file folder and submit it out with the rest of your papers to an editor. Or, how about trying a different route? This could be the most thoughtful, comprehensive, and polished solution for your project.A growing number of high school and college students are now turning to the internet to find the best paper writing services. These students understand that they have an important job to do and that their grades depend on it.The trend towards online education for high school graduates is only growing. Online classes can take many years off of the student's college experience, however, and paper writing services can make the entire process of completing a thesis or research paper a snap. College paper writing services are needed to make sure that everything is in order before submitting any papers or projects.More college students are using the internet to get jobs after graduation. An online degree from a reputable university, such as Ball State University, Penn State, or Lehigh University, can give you an advantage over other applicants. The same is true for individuals who have an Associate's degree. Because of the advancements in technology, it is now possible to complete your college career using your laptop, or even a mobile phone, instead of a desk at your college.On more than one occasion, when faced with the task of writing a large number of essays and reports, my brother and I had to skip important college projects. As a project manager, I need to make sure that every single piece of paper that comes in for publication goes out on the best possible note. When it comes to academic papers, these papers, along with other project work, are simply too important to pass up.Many students use the internet to take college and graduate papers to other parts of the country or even across the g lobe. We know this from personal experience.Do not wait until the last minute to mail or email a final paper to your professor. Make a decision about your final grade in advance so that your professor has ample time to review it. When it comes to your own projects, it is even more important to plan ahead.Some professors may make the mistake of assuming that the student has already submitted a paper. A poor grade in their eyes means that the student did not present their project properly. Ask for a follow-up on your own paper, so that you can address any problems that may arise after you have sent it out.

Heroes, Namesakes, and Celebrities free essay sample

On the planet that we live in, it is to most people’s understanding that everyone needs certain individuals in their lives. Most respect saints, for example, relatives like a dad or maybe a notable warrior impact from an earlier time. Indeed, even well known superstars act like good examples to some through their specific achievement and relations between each other. In Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, we see instances of legends, famous people, and namesakes the same as we do in reality in which helps us in acknowledging both the reason for the book, just as significant life angles. (Huxley) Namesakes are an extraordinary case of both the superstar and courageous sort individuals, being individuals who are named after a past motivation, for example, Martin Luther King Jr. what's more, Clifford Joseph Harris Jr’s. , or even Bernard Marx of Brand New World. (Huxley) Whether it is for security, persuasive purposes, or even amusement, we as a whole have in any event one individual in our lives that we appreciate, being our saints and big names. As our lives flourish, we in the end understand that we’re sufficiently blessed to be included or even simply knowing about extraordinary individuals that we allude to as legends and even famous people. Numerous Heroes are revered for their fearlessness and courage seemingly out of the blue when nobody else stands up the test. It is additionally their will to have any kind of effect and seek after an undertaking with no idea of disappointment that the vast majority appreciate, for example, war legend and our first president George Washington. George Washington filled in as an enrolled warrior in the Virginia state army at twenty years old. This in the long run controlled him towards turning into an innovator in the scandalous French and Indian War. Americans would admire George Washington as our country’s father, in which many concurred he had the right to be titled as. Regardless of the chances, inconveniences, and savagery of war Washington went to bat for his nation. George Washington realized he would need to get his men and himself through chilly, wet and attentive fights, yet never the less he drove us towards our opportunities. With regards to VIPs, most consider them to be their wellspring of amusement, however that is additionally a cliché remark. A few famous people could be effectively observed as saints however in the event that one can differentiate. A incredible model would be rap craftsman Clifford Joseph Harris Jr. , or otherwise called T. I. This rousing rapper is well known for his great hit tunes, however other people who aren’t aficionados of his music may know about him from a chivalrous demonstration of his. One day on his way to his account studio in Atlanta Georgia, T. I. gotten notification from a news report that a man was taking steps to bounce off a twenty-two story working to his demise. (Huey) After becoming aware of this, Harris Jr. went reached a radio broadcast which was inside the structure and recorded an inspirational video convincing the man not to hop. This being T. I. ’S ability, he was done in the blink of an eye. The specialists immediately demonstrated the video to the confounded man and he comprehended that his life as all others was too valuable to even think about throwing ceaselessly. Directly after the man withdrew from the housetop he and T. I. had a meaningful discussion in a room of that building where through the courageous artist’s carried the man to an acknowledgment. (Huey) It was that day where Harris Jr. was seen than in excess of a rapper, yet a legend. Big names like T. I. are the sort of individuals who set extraordinary guides to others in this world. Different on-screen characters take a gander at themselves as customary individuals subsequent to submitting brave activities, for example, Vin Diesel who spared a family from a consuming vehicle, and Harrison Ford who shipped a harmed lady from a mountain out of unrestrained choice from his own private helicopter; the equivalent copter that he advances his nearby rescuers to spare a large number of dollars per trip. It is additionally that perspective that discloses to them that they are simply making the wisest decision and are normal similarly as all of us that genuinely makes them legends on their VIP statuses. Few out of every odd VIP can say that they have spared lives and carried harmony to a general public, yet a reasonable bundle can say that they have undoubtedly rolled out incredible improvements. Saints, for example, George Washington, as referenced prior, could have handily said that he had an effect in actually every Americans life. Washington alongside each other war legend accomplished more than their intentional part in securing every one of us and our excellent home. Minimal negative change is seen from most saints, however some may contend that they exist. Going in to namesakes, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. , offspring of Dr. Martin Luther King Sr. , carried on in his father’s strides as an agent speaker for dark rights. Luther King’s words from his numerous talks, particularly the notorious I Had a Dream discourse, were a portion of his outstanding endeavors he used to battle towards more opportunities for the Negro Americans. Inevitably King’s battling lead to progress, however he didn't live to see it. Ruler was killed by a bigot man, alluding to how extremely just supremacist individuals would have considered this to be change for blacks as negative. It is more than evident however that Dr. Martin Luther King Jr’s work was out of solid conviction and assurance, totally positive. When perusing Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World epic, certain saints stick out. More than clear, Henry Ford maker of the model T car is viewed as maybe in excess of a legend. (Huxley) Not just does the period wherein the book happens record their time from the day after his passing, however they depict him as an individual of love. Through Ford’s accomplishment as a creator, he turned into the world’s most significant symbol in the choice, getting more than qualified to hold the title of a saint. Were it not for his genuine achievements, the Brave New World would have been founded on something different totally. (Huxley), Then there is Helmholtz Watson, an Alpha teacher of the College of Emotional Engineering sets motivation to his own position alone. A chivalrous attribute in Watson that is clear to perusers would be is need to accomplish more with his novel ability. Enduring of weariness, Watson feels that his work is presently irrelevant and wishes to put his composing ability to more readily utilize. Being an alluring, shrewd, solid and notable individual at World state he as of now shows images of a saint. Indeed, even with these character characteristics, it is his need to help out the better through his compositions that gives him legend like quality. Getting into the famous people so to talk in the determination Brave New World, a couple of names ring a bell. (Huxley). John Savage and Bernard would be two fine models. Bernard is VIP like as in he is essentially the fundamental character, and that he turns out to be genuinely mainstream in the World State after his visit to the booking. He needs things that he just can’t have, for example, the sexual coexistence that he was so desirous and censuring about until he got it. Turning out to be and understanding that he is presently a deceiver, Bernard loses his superstar like status and makes it more clear to see how he isn't the legend type. John â€Å"Savage† is who takes Bernard spot light after he begins to blur away from the story is unquestionably depicted as an advocate. He is viewed as a pariah by both the world state and the savage Indian clan perceiving how they don’t let him take an interest in their ceremonies, and how the world state doesn't rehearse the religion. Despite the fact that John in the long run ended it all, he remained to what he had faith in through his hopeful and credulous character which made him stand apart towards others. Identifying with the reason for the book, his passing could be perceived by the peruser as franticness that was his break from the world he lived in that couldn't acknowledge his convictions. As read in Aldous Huxley’s Brand New World, saints and famous people the same offer basic characteristics. (Shmoop). Administration and assurance are two of the qualities that can be found as characteristics from these two titles in characters from the novel just as individuals in today’s genuine world. To finish up this composition, I think that its safe to state that big names, for example, T. I. also, Bernard Marx can identify with us through so much activity and reasonableness. Likewise that it is Heroes, for example, George Washington and Henry Ford who make our lives even conceivable.

Digital Television Migration in Kenya Essay - 1650 Words

Digital Television Migration in Kenya (Essay Sample) Content: Digital Television Migration in KenyaStudents nameInstitutionDigital Television Migration in KenyaIntroduction107th Congress, 2nd Session paper indicate that for a long period of time, television stations have only used the analogue network to raise their signals. With innovation, emergent of digital broadcasting have provided greater efficiency in utilizing the Kenyans electromagnetic spectrum, making it viable enough for Kenyans switch from analogue to digital (Flint, 2001). This process of electronically transforming to digital services is viewed to provide a greater positive impact on the Kenyan development in all aspects from social, political, and religious context (Rao, 2012).PurposeThis paper is to provide critical analysis on the preliminary stages, current situation of development of the digital migration, its implication on technology arena, and various obstacles facing its development of this noble technology. The Digital Television Migration in KenyaResea rch also explores extensively on the various strategies of exploring the digital migration in Kenya.Basis of ResearchAccording to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) agreement almost all countries are scheduled to reach the digital standard by June 17, 2015. Relevant reports indicate that in Africa only Mauritius had completely embraced the practice to provide its citizens with the digital benefits (Samuel, 2009). Kenya being the center for East and central Africa development projects, has launched its ambition to meet the digital target of 2015 According to the Kenyans information technology secretary, this technology will provide a universal access to the basic digital and internet information to millions of Kenyans (Samuel, 2009).Pro: Digital Migration in KenyaThe digital migration is expected to provide enormous benefits to all Kenyans. The benefits include; efficient utilization of the spectrum, studies indicate that digital signals usually takes relatively less ban dwidth as opposed to analogue signals, this will enable the country to constructively use the extra spectrum to run other mobile industries (Great Britain, 2009; Media Development and Diversity Bill, 2002). Second advantage is quality television, digital network usually provide a superior television interface, improved picture, and better sound signals (Media bill, 2002). The digital migration is also expected to provide an opportunity for introduction of relatively higher televisions versions which could not be introduced by the analogue versions (Great Britain, 2009). Moreover, the digital migration in Kenya is expected to provide a host of several business opportunities for the ICT sector in the country thus improve the business models in the country (FCC, 2007). Finally, the digital migration will enormously improve the social and educational background of majority of Kenyans as it will open the world arena to all Kenyans (Samuel, 2009).Challenges to the Adoption of the Digital Television TechnologyIt is evidently clear that Kenya missed to meat the deadline that was initially set in June 2012 to meet the installation of the digital television. AfriMAP, OSIEA, OSMP and UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006, reports indicate that the transformation is coupled with the several challenges, first is the relatively high cost of digital decoder boxes required to set the station. Second is the financially weak broadcast station which cannot manage to air for the citizens channels using their own licenses and lastly is the political interference that have misguided the migration agenda(UK DCMSBPD, 2006).ConclusionFor Kenya to achieve the use of digital television in 2015, several strategies must be in place. These includes; campaigning to raise public awareness on the benefits of digital television migration, preparer a proper plan before migration and set up a strong technological man-power to carry out the installation exercise.References107th C ongress, 2nd Session, Consumer Broadband, and Digital Television Promotion Bill [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 from /docs/cbdtpa/ hollings.s2048.032102.htmAfriMAP, OSIEA, OSMP Kenya broadcasting survey report [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 From books.google.com/books?isbn=1920489207HYPERLINK "/search?sa=Gtbm=bkstbm=bksq=inauthor:%22Great+Britain:+Parliament:+House+of+Lords:+Select+Committee+on+Communications%22ei=FDV-UrbdBOeQ7AaExoHADAved=0CE8Q9AgwBgbiw=1280bih=885dpr=1"Great Britain: Parliament: House of Lords: Select Committee on CommunicationsHYPER15 (2009) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½ Digital switchover of television and radio in the United Kingdom: 2nd Report... [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 from books.google.com/books?isbn=0108459780Flint, D, (2001) Opening the Door to the Digital Era - Regulating Australias Broadcast and New Media Industry of the Future&r... Digital Television Migration in Kenya Essay - 1650 Words Digital Television Migration in Kenya (Essay Sample) Content: Digital Television Migration in KenyaStudents nameInstitutionDigital Television Migration in KenyaIntroduction107th Congress, 2nd Session paper indicate that for a long period of time, television stations have only used the analogue network to raise their signals. With innovation, emergent of digital broadcasting have provided greater efficiency in utilizing the Kenyans electromagnetic spectrum, making it viable enough for Kenyans switch from analogue to digital (Flint, 2001). This process of electronically transforming to digital services is viewed to provide a greater positive impact on the Kenyan development in all aspects from social, political, and religious context (Rao, 2012).PurposeThis paper is to provide critical analysis on the preliminary stages, current situation of development of the digital migration, its implication on technology arena, and various obstacles facing its development of this noble technology. The Digital Television Migration in KenyaResea rch also explores extensively on the various strategies of exploring the digital migration in Kenya.Basis of ResearchAccording to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) agreement almost all countries are scheduled to reach the digital standard by June 17, 2015. Relevant reports indicate that in Africa only Mauritius had completely embraced the practice to provide its citizens with the digital benefits (Samuel, 2009). Kenya being the center for East and central Africa development projects, has launched its ambition to meet the digital target of 2015 According to the Kenyans information technology secretary, this technology will provide a universal access to the basic digital and internet information to millions of Kenyans (Samuel, 2009).Pro: Digital Migration in KenyaThe digital migration is expected to provide enormous benefits to all Kenyans. The benefits include; efficient utilization of the spectrum, studies indicate that digital signals usually takes relatively less ban dwidth as opposed to analogue signals, this will enable the country to constructively use the extra spectrum to run other mobile industries (Great Britain, 2009; Media Development and Diversity Bill, 2002). Second advantage is quality television, digital network usually provide a superior television interface, improved picture, and better sound signals (Media bill, 2002). The digital migration is also expected to provide an opportunity for introduction of relatively higher televisions versions which could not be introduced by the analogue versions (Great Britain, 2009). Moreover, the digital migration in Kenya is expected to provide a host of several business opportunities for the ICT sector in the country thus improve the business models in the country (FCC, 2007). Finally, the digital migration will enormously improve the social and educational background of majority of Kenyans as it will open the world arena to all Kenyans (Samuel, 2009).Challenges to the Adoption of the Digital Television TechnologyIt is evidently clear that Kenya missed to meat the deadline that was initially set in June 2012 to meet the installation of the digital television. AfriMAP, OSIEA, OSMP and UK Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology 2006, reports indicate that the transformation is coupled with the several challenges, first is the relatively high cost of digital decoder boxes required to set the station. Second is the financially weak broadcast station which cannot manage to air for the citizens channels using their own licenses and lastly is the political interference that have misguided the migration agenda(UK DCMSBPD, 2006).ConclusionFor Kenya to achieve the use of digital television in 2015, several strategies must be in place. These includes; campaigning to raise public awareness on the benefits of digital television migration, preparer a proper plan before migration and set up a strong technological man-power to carry out the installation exercise.References107th C ongress, 2nd Session, Consumer Broadband, and Digital Television Promotion Bill [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 from /docs/cbdtpa/ hollings.s2048.032102.htmAfriMAP, OSIEA, OSMP Kenya broadcasting survey report [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 From books.google.com/books?isbn=1920489207HYPERLINK "/search?sa=Gtbm=bkstbm=bksq=inauthor:%22Great+Britain:+Parliament:+House+of+Lords:+Select+Committee+on+Communications%22ei=FDV-UrbdBOeQ7AaExoHADAved=0CE8Q9AgwBgbiw=1280bih=885dpr=1"Great Britain: Parliament: House of Lords: Select Committee on CommunicationsHYPER15 (2009) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½ Digital switchover of television and radio in the United Kingdom: 2nd Report... [Accessed on 9 Nov 2013 from books.google.com/books?isbn=0108459780Flint, D, (2001) Opening the Door to the Digital Era - Regulating Australias Broadcast and New Media Industry of the Future&r...

Micro Strip Antenna - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6397 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Telecommunication Essay Type Essay any type Did you like this example? Chapter 1 Introduction The project which we have chosen to do as our final year project for the under graduate program involves the characterization of micro strip patch antenna. In this project we have carried out simulations of different types of antennas, which include dipole, monopole and patch. The purpose of designing all of these is to gain knowledge and experience in the designing of antennas for different purposes by using commercially available CEM. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Micro Strip Antenna" essay for you Create order The frequency band, which we have chosen as our relevant band, is the GSM-900 band, which is of wide use in the cellular network. The purpose of choosing this band is to gain valuable knowledge of this frequency band. Antennas are a fundamental part of every system in which wireless or free space is the medium of communication. Basically, an antenna is a transducer and is designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. It is a transducer as it converts radio frequency electrical currents into electromagnetic waves. Common applications of antennas include radio, television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless networks and radar. A detailed study of antennas is discussed in chapter two and chapter three of this report. The CEM softwares that we have used for the designing include XFDTD ® provided by Remcom Inc. and CST Microwave Studio ®, which is a full wave, 3-Dimensional, Electromagnetic simulation software and CST Microwave Studio ®. XFDTD ® utilizes a numerical electromagnetic code for antenna design, that is, the finite difference time domain technique (FDTD). Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) is a popular computational electrodynamics modeling technique. The first antenna structure modeled is the dipole. A dipole antenna consists of two conductors on the same axis with a source at the center. It is also modeled in XFDTD ® by following the procedure provided by the software and mentioned in the Appendix. The results are verified by comparing with analytical papers of (lambda/2) dipole. After completing this, the next goal is to model the micro strip (patch) antenna which is one of the main focuses of this project. It comprises of a metallic patch bonded to a dielectric substrate with a metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate forming a ground plane. This metal layer is very thin. Hence, it can be fabricated very easily using printed circuit techniques. Therefore, they are inexpensive to manu facture and are easily integrate able with microwave integrated circuits. The software modeling is carried out in XFDTD ® and on CST Microwave Studio ®. The verification of the results with the experimental results obtained leads to the final phase and the conclusion of the project. 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this project is to gain knowledge and experience about computational electromagnetic, as it applies to antenna design. It was also our sole purpose to gain experience in fabrication and experimental characterization of micro strip patch antennas. To achieve these objectives we used two commercially available CEM softwares, XFDTD ® and CST Microwave Studio ®, to design a micro strip patch antenna for 900 MHz. We also gained experimental experience by characterizing the return loss of this patch antenna using the vector network analyzer. 1.2 Project Scope 1.2.1 Description We will study some basic types of antennas; extending basic knowledge of antenna t o complex antenna designs such as micro strip patch antennas and also modeled them on antenna design and simulation software. This report has been divided into a number of chapters each discussing a different stage of the project. They are briefly described below: Chapter 2 describes the fundamentals of antennas and thoroughly discusses the theory of fundamental parameters and quantities of antenna. In this chapter the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Some critical performance parameters of antennas are also discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are also discussed for understanding purposes. Chapter 3 discusses the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field as the antenna pattern or radiation pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. It also discusses the types of antenna patterns in detail. Some important mathematical equations are also solved in this chapter for the better understanding of how an antenna works. Chapter 4 discusses in detail the modeling of the half wave dipole and micro strip patch antenna using XFDTD ®. It describes the modeling of the antenna, the feeding, and the resultant plots obtained. Furthermore it concludes with comparison of the results obtained with the simulations already available in the software. Chapter 5 discusses the theory, calculations involved and the fabrication of the micro strip (patch) antenna in detail. The calculations for the dimensions of the rectangular patch in detail are in this chapter. Also, this chapter describes the results obtained through simulation of the model on the software CST Microwave Studio ®. Chapter 6 discusses conclusions drawn from the whole project. Chapter 2 Antenna Fundamentals In this chapter, the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Next, some critical performance parameters of antennas are discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are introduced. The treatment for these is taken from the reference [4], [6] and [9]. 2.1 Introduction Antenna is a metallic structure designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic energy. An antenna acts as a transitional structure between the guiding devices (e.g. waveguide, transmission line) and the free space. The official IEEE definition of an antenna as given by Stutzman and Thiele [9] is as follows: â€Å"That part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves†. 2.2 How an Antenna radiates? In order to understand how an antenna radiates, we have to first know how radiation occurs. A conducting wire radiates because of time-varying current or an acceleration or deceleration of charge. If there is no motion of charges in a wire, no radiation will occur, since no flow of current oc curs. Radiation will not occur even if charges are moving with uniform or constant velocity along a straight wire. Also, charges moving with uniform velocity along a curved or bent wire will produce radiation. If charge is oscillating with time, then radiation will occur even along a straight wire as explained by Balanis [4]. The radiation pattern from an antenna can be further understood by considering a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line. When a sinusoidal voltage source is applied across the transmission line, an electric field is generated which is sinusoidal in nature. The bunching of the electric lines of force can indicate the magnitude of this electric field. The free electrons on the conductors are forcefully displaced by the electric lines of force and the motion of these charges causes the flow of current, which leads to the creation of a magnetic field. Due to time varying electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves are created wh ich travel between the conductors. When these waves approach open space, connecting the open ends of the electric lines forms free space waves. As the sinusoidal source continuously creates electric disturbance, electromagnetic waves are generated continuously and these travel through the transmission line, the antenna and are radiated into the free space. 2.3 Near and Far Field Regions The field patterns of an antenna, change with distance and are associated with two types of energy radiating and reactive energy. Hence, the space surrounding an antenna can be divided into three regions. Figure 2.1: Field regions around an antenna The three regions that are depicted in above figure are described as: 2.3.1 Reactive Near-Field Region: In this region the reactive field dominates. The reactive energy oscillates towards and away from the antenna, thus appearing as reactance. In this region, energy is stored and no energy is dissipated. The outermost boundary for this re gion is at a distance ? (2.1) where R1is the distance from antenna surface, D is the largest dimension of the antenna and ? is the wavelength. 2.3.2 Radiating Near-Field Region: This region also called Fresnel region lies between the reactive near-field region and the far field region. In this region, the angular field distribution is a function of the distance from the antenna. reactive fields are smaller in this field as compared to the reactive near-field region and the radiation fields dominate. The outermost boundary for this region is at a distance (2.2) where R2is the distance from the antenna surface. 2.3.3 Far-Field Region: The region beyond is the far field region also called Fraunhofer region. The angular field distribution is not dependent on the distance from the antenna in this region. In this region, the reactive fields are absent and only the radiation fields exist and the power density varies as the inverse square of the radial distance in th is region. 2.4 The Hertzian Dipole A hertzian dipole or infinitesimal dipole, which is a piece of straight wire whose length L and diameter are both very small, compared to one wavelength. A uniform current I is assumed to flow along its length. Although such a current element does not exist in real life, it serves as a building block from which the field of a practical antenna can be calculated (Sadiku [6]). Consider the hertzian dipole shown in figure. We assume that it is located at the origin of a coordinate system and that it carries a uniform current. i.e. I=I? cos?t. The retarded magnetic vector potential at the field point, due to dipole is given by (2.3) Where [I] is the retarded current given by (2.4) Where ?=?/u=2?/?, and u=1/ the current is said to be retarded at point under consideration because there is a propagation time delay r/u or phase delay. By substitution we may also write A in phasor form as t(2.5) Transforming this vector in Cart esian to spherical coordinates yields Where But (2.6) We find the E field using (2.7) (2.8) Where, A close observation of the field equations reveals that we have terms varying as The 1/ term is called the electrostatic field since it corresponds to the field of an electric dipole. This term dominates over other terms in a region very close to the hertzian dipole. The is called the inductive field, and it is predictable from the from the Biot Savart law. The term is important only at near field, that is, at distances close to the current element. The 1/r term is called the far field or radiation field because it is the only term that remains at the far zone, that is, at a point very far from the current element. Here, we are mainly concerned with the far field or radiation zone (?r1), where the terms in can be neglected in favor of the 1/r term. Thus at far field, (2.9) The radiation terms of and are in time phase and orthogonal just as the fields of a uniform plane wave. The near and far zone fields are determined respectively to be the in equalities We define the boundary between the near and far zones by the value of r given by . where d is the largest dimension of the antenna. The time average power density is obtained as ) (2.10) Substitution yields time average radiated power as But And hence above equation becomes If free space is the medium of propagation, ?=120 and (2.11) This power is equivalent to the power dissipated in a fictitious resistance by current That is, (2.12) Where is the root mean square value of I. From above equations we obtain Or (2.13) The resistance is a characteristic property of the hertzian dipole antenna and is called its radiation resistance. We observe that it requires antennas with large radiation resistances to deliver large amounts of power to space. The above equation for is for a hertzian dipole in free space. 2.5 Half Wave Dipole Antenna The Half Wave dipole is named after the fact that its length is half of the wavelength i.e. . It is excited through a thin wire fed at the midpoint by a voltage source connected to the antenna via a transmission line. The radiated electromagnetic field due to a dipole can be obtained if we consider it as a chain of hertzian dipoles (Sadiku [6]). ?/2 I z x y I Figure 2.3: Half Wave Dipole The magnetic Vector potential P due to length dl of the dipole carrying a phasor current is (2.14) We have assumed a sinusoidal current distribution because the current must vanish at the ends of the dipole. Also note that the actual current distribution on an antenna is not precisely known. It can be determined by using Maxwells equations subject to the boundary conditions on the antenna by a mathematically complex procedure. The sinusoidal current assumption approximates the distribution obtained by solving the boundary value problem and is commonly used. O Y X Z Figure 2.4. Magnetic field at point o If r ?, then Hence we can substitute in the denominator of the first equation where the magnitude of the distance is needed. In the numerator for the phase term, the difference between ? and ? is significant, so we will replace by . We maintain the cosine term in the exponent while neglecting it in the denominator because the exponent involves the phase constant while the denominator does not. So, (2.15) Using the following integrating equation, Applying this equation gives on (2.15) Since and the above equation becomes, Using identity = 2cos x, we obtain (2.16) We use in conjunction with the fact that to obtain electric and magnetic fields at far zone as (2.17) The radiation term of and are in time phase and orthogonal. We can obtain the time-average power density as (2.18) The time average radiated power can be determined as In the previous equations has been substituted assuming free space as t he medium of propagation. The last equation can be written as Changing the variables, and using partial fractions reduces the above equation to Replacing with in the first integrand with in the second results in (2.19) Solving the previous equation of yields value of . The radiation resistance for the half wave dipole antenna is readily obtained from the following equation and comes out to be. (2.20) Chapter 3 Antenna Characteristics In the previous chapter we have discussed the basics of antennas and the elementary types of antennas. Now we will discuss the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field and are as follows. And have been treated from the references [4], [6] and [9]. 3.1 Antenna Patterns The Antenna Pattern or Radiation Pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. There are two types of Radiation Patterns of antennas. The Field and the Power Pattern. 3.1.1 Field Pattern When the amplitude of the E-field is plotted, it is called the Field Pattern or the Voltage Pattern. A three dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is avoided by plotting separately the normalized versus for a constant which is called an E-Plane pattern or vertical pattern and the normalized versus for called the H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern. The normalization of is with respect to the maximum value of the so that the maximum value of the normalized is unity as explained by Sadiku [6]. For Example, for the hertzian Dipole, the normalized comes out to be, (3.1) Which is independent of From this equation we can obtain the E-plane pattern as the polar pattern of by varying from 0 to 180 degrees. This plot will be symmetric about the z-axis. For the H-plane pattern we set so that , which is a circle of radius 1. 3.1.2 Power Pattern When the square of the amplitude of E is plotted, it is called the power pattern. A plot of the time-average power, for a fixed distance r is the power pattern of the antenna. It is obtained by plotting separately versus for constant and versus for constant. The normalized power pattern for the hertzian dipole is obtained from the equation. (3.2) 3.2 Radiation Intensity The Radiation intensity of an antenna is defined as (3.3) Using the above equation, the total average power radiated can be expressed as (3.4) (3.5) Where d?= is the differential solid angle in steradian (sr). The radiation intensity is measured in watts per steradian (W/sr). The average value of is the total radiated power divided by ; that is, (3.6) 3.3 Directive Gain The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction It can also be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It is usually obtained as the ratio of radiation intensi ty in a given direction to the average radiation intensity, that is (3.7) may also be expressed in terms of directive gain as (3.8) The directive gain depends on antenna pattern. For the hertzian dipole as well as for the half wave dipole is maximum at and minimum at . Hence they radiate power in a direction broadside to their length. For an isotropic antenna, . However, such an antenna is not in reality but an ideality. The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity. D is also the maximum directive gain So, (3.9) Or, (3.10) For an isotropic antenna, D=1, which is the smallest value that D can have. For the hertzian dipole, as derived in equation (3.7) For half wave dipole, Where, ?=120 and (3.11) 3.4 Bandwidth (Impedance Bandwidth) By definition Bandwidth of an antenna is the difference between the highest and the lowest operational frequency of the antenna. Mathemati cally, (3.12) If this ratio is 10 to 1, then the antenna I classified as a broadband antenna. Another definition for Bandwidth is: Where, . 3.5 Gain We define that G is the actual gain in power over an ideal isotropic radiator when both are fed with same power. The reference for gain is the input power, not the radiated power. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of the radiated power () to the input power (). The input power is transformed into radiated power and surface wave power while a small portion is dissipated due to conductor and dielectric losses of the materials used. The power gain of the antenna as (3.13) The ratio of the power gain in any specified direction to the directive gain in that direction is referred to as the radiation efficiency of the antenna i.e. (3.14) Antenna gain can also be specified using the total efficiency instead of the radiation efficiency only. This total efficiency is a combination of the radiation efficie ncy and efficiency linked to the impedance matching of the antenna. Hence, from equation 3.14 (3.14(a)) 3.6 Polarization The definition for polarization can be quoted from Balanis [4] as: â€Å"Polarization of a radiated wave can be expressed as â€Å"that property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and in the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation.† Polarization then is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along the direction of propagation.† 3.7 Return Loss The Return Loss (RL) is the parameter which indicates the amount of power that is lost to or consumed by the load and is not reflected back as waves are reflected which leads to the formation of standing waves. This occurs when the transmitter and antenna impedance do not match. Hence, the RL is a parameter to indicate how well the matching between the transmitter and antenna has taken place. The RL is given as: (3.15) For perfect matching between the antenna and transmitter, RL = ? and ? = 0 which means no power is being reflected back, whereas a ? = 1 has a RL = 0 dB, which implies that all incident power is reflected. For practical applications a RL of -9.54 dB is acceptable. Chapter 4 Modeling of Half-Wave Dipole Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.1 Introduction For the purpose of modeling and simulation of antennas we have used modeling softwares, which are widely used in industries. These softwares are specially used for the purpose of electromagnetic (EM) modeling, which refers to the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment. The first such software bro ught into use is XFDTD ®. It is a three-dimensional full wave electromagnetic solver based on the finite difference time domain method. It is fully three-dimensional.   Complex CAD ® objects can be imported into XFDTD ® and combining and editing can be done within XFDTD ® using the internal graphical editor. It is a powerful software which offers a lot of options to its users. This software has been initially used for modeling of basic antennas to get familiarity with interface and working of the software. Dipole is one of such basic antennas with a simple structure; as the name suggests dipole antenna consists of two wires on the same axis with a source applied at the center point. In this chapter, we begin with the analysis of a half-wave dipole antenna by derivation of field equations and the MATLAB ® plot. After the analysis the modeling is done using XFDTD ®. Finally, all the results are matched by plotting the data in MATLAB ®. 4.2 Derivation of Vector Magnetic Potential We begin with the derivation done in chapter 2 for of the radiated fields for a half-wave dipole antenna in equation 3.11 which gives us the following expression for (4.11) 4.2.1 MATLAB ® Plots of Half Wave Dipole Antenna The expression can be plotted in MATLAB ® using the following code clear all; theta = [0:360]*pi/180; F = cos((pi/2)*cos(theta))./(0.0000001 + sin(theta)); Pn = F./max(F); Pn=abs(Pn); title (POLAR PLOT OF HALF WAVE DIPOLE ) polar(0,1); hold on; polar (theta,Pn,r); The MATLAB ® generated plot of normalized electric field for half-wave dipole for above code is as follows Figure 4.1: MATLAB ® plot for Normalized Electric Field 4.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole Using XFDTD ® 4.3.1 Introduction XFDTD ® is a full wave, 3D, Electromagnetic Analysis Software. XFDTD ® used solid, dimension based modeling to create geometries. To create geometry, library objects and editing functions may be u sed. Modeling of half-wave dipole antenna was carried out in XFDTD ® to test the softwares capability of generating far field radiation pattern. And also to get in depth knowledge of XFDTD ® before using it for the modeling of patch antennas, which is the foremost objective of this project. 4.3.2 Validity of Model As in the previous section the electromagnetic theory of half-wave dipole was studied and its mathematical equations for normalized radiated field was derived and plotted. This plot will be our reference plot while doing the modeling of half-wave dipole. 4.3.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole As we know the length of a half-wave dipole antenna should be half the wavelength of the operating carrier wave frequency. Thus the dipole modeled in XFDTD ® has the following specifications: Length of 30cm Frequency used 1 GHz Thin wire was used to create the dipole Source was attached in the middle Figure below shows the geometry of dipole being modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.2: XFDTD ® geometry of Half-Wave Dipole 4.3.4 Results The far fields of dipole antenna were calculated by XFDTD ® and plots were obtained for far field versus both Phi and Theta, as shown in Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4. The results matched with the theoretically established results. Figure 4.3: Far Field vs. Theta Figure 4.4: Far Field vs. Phi 4.3.5 Plotting XFDTD ® Results in MATLAB ® The data for far fields from XFDTD ® was exported and matched with the theoretical results in MATLAB ® for the purpose of confirming the results. Help was taken from the XFDTD ® reference manual to learn how to export far field data. The XFDTD ® file was copied and the extension was changed to ‘.dat and name was changed to ‘XFTDT.dat Next this file was read by MATLAB ® using the MATLAB ® code provided [angle1, a1, c1, d1, e1] = textread(XFDTD.dat,%f %f %f %f %f, 361); a ngle1=angle1*pi/180; q=find(c1-9); c1(q)=-9; c1=c1+9; m=max(c1); c1=c1./m; polar(angle1,c1,g) The MATLAB ® result is shown n figure below. Figure 4.8: XFDTD ® radiation pattern in MATLAB ® The experimentally produced curve qualitatively matches with our theoretical calculations. The shape of the curve is similar to the theoretical description, whereas the scale is different. For the purpose of confirming this result, the data of this curve is also exported into MATLAB ® to be compared with previously simulated results. 4.4 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.4.1 Introduction After gaining confidence on the design of dipole antenna by comparing its results with the simulations and the results obtained from MATLAB ®, we use the same computational software for the modeling of micro strip patch antenna. 4.4.2 Validity of Model For the modeling of micro strip patch antenna, a paper of IEEE â€Å"Application of Three -Dimensional Finite-Difference Time Domain Method of the Analysis of Planar Micro strip Circuits† is reproduced. This paper is used as a reference so that the results could be compared in order to check the validity. The result of our exercise confirms the results of the IEEE paper; this takes us to design a micro strip antenna of our desired parameters. This training will help us gain the expertise over the computational software, which can be used for the modeling of multiple different antennas. 4.4.3 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna The antenna is designed for the frequency range from 0 GHz (dc) to 20 GHz. The dimensions used for the antenna centers it at 7.8 GHz. Although its results at the higher frequencies are also examined for the accuracy, the parameters for the antenna are given below: Duroid substrate is used with =2.2 Thickness is 1/32 inch=0.794mm Length = 12.45mm Width = 16mm Transmission line feed is used and is placed at 2.09mm away from the left corner. With these specifications the center frequency comes out to be 7.8 GHz and this can be verified from the link www.emtalk.com/mpaclac.php Figure 4.5 shows the geometry of micro strip patch modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.5 Geometry of the micro strip patch antenna 4.4.4 Results The S11 plot of micro strip patch antenna was calculated by XFDTD ®, as shown in Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 is the plot of the IEEE paper. This gives us the comparison between the two. Figure 4.6 obtained from the XFDTD ® Figure 4.7: Results of S11 parameters from published IEEE Papers Chapter 5 Micro Strip Antennas 5.1 Introduction These days there are many commercial applications, such as mobile radio and wireless communication, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profiles are constraints and low profile antennas may be required. To meet these requirements micro strip antennas can be used. These are low profile antennas and are conformabl e to planar and non-planar surfaces. These are simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed circuit technology. They are also mechanically robust and can be mounted on rigid surfaces. In addition, micro strip antennas are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and impedance as explained by Balanis [4]. 5.1.1 Basic Characteristics Micro strip antennas consist of a very thin metallic strip or patch placed a small fraction of a wavelength above a ground plane. The micro strip patch is designed so its pattern maximum is normal to the patch hence making it a broadside radiator. This is accomplished by properly choosing the mode or field configuration of excitation beneath the patch. End-fire radiation can also be accomplished by judicious mode selection. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the element is usually . The conducting micro strip or patch and the ground plane are separated by the substrate (Balanis [4]). There are numer ous substrates that can be used for the design of micro strip antennas and their dielectric constants are usually in the range of . The substrate that we are using in our designs has a value of 4.6. Often micro strip antennas are also referred to as patch antennas. The radiating elements and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The radiating patch may be square, rectangular, thin strip, circular, elliptical, triangular or any other configuration. Arrays of micro strip elements with single or multiple feeds are used to achieve greater directivities. 5.1.2 Feeding Methods There are numerous methods that can be used to feed micro strip antennas. The four most common and popular are the micro strip line, coaxial probe, aperture coupling and proximity coupling. In our designs we have selected coaxial probe as our method of feeding the Micro strip antenna. Following is a brief explanation of coaxial feeding as explained by Balanis [4]. Coaxia l-line feeds, where the inner conductor of the coax is attached to the radiation patch while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane are widely used. The coaxial probe feed is also easy to fabricate and match, and it has low spurious radiation. However is has narrow bandwidth and it is more difficult to model. 5.2 Rectangular Patch The rectangular patch is one of the most widely used configurations of Micro strip antennas. It is very easy to analyze using either the transmission line model or the cavity model, which have higher accuracy for thin substrates as explained by Balanis [4]. In our design we have used transmission line model. A brief description of both these models is given: 5.2.1 Transmission-Line model The transmission line model is the easiest of all but it gives the least accurate results and also lacks versatility. However, it does shed some physical insight into the design of the antenna. In a more basic explanation, the transmission-line mo del represents the micro strip antenna by two slots, separated by a low-impedance transmission line of length L. Figure 5.1: Micro Strip Patch Antenna with line feeding (i) Fringing Effect Because of the finite length and width of patch the field at the edges of the patch undergoes fringing. This is illustrated in the Figure 5.2. The amount of fringing depends on the physical dimensions of the antenna and is a function of the dimensions and the height of the patch. For micro strip antennas, as 1, thus the fringing is reduced. However, it must be taken into account as the resonant frequencies of the antennas are influenced by fringing (Balanis [4]). Following Figure 5.2 shows the fringing effect along the width of micro strip line. Figure 5.2: Electric field lines along the width of micro strip lines As most of the electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines exist in air. Because 1 and 1, the electric field lines concentrates mostly in th e substrate. Since some of the waves travel in the air and some in the substrate and effective dielectric constant ‘ should be introduced. (5.1) (ii) Effective Length, Resonant Frequency, and Effective Width: Because of fringing effects the patch of the micro strip antenna comes out to be greater than its physical dimensions. The dimensions of the patch along its length can be extended on each end by a distance of , which is a function of the effective dielectric constant and the width to the height ratio (W/h). A common approximate relation for the normalized extension of the length is: (5.2) Since the length of the path has now been extended on each side by , the effective length of the patch is now As the resonant frequency of the micro strip antenna is a function of its length. For a good radiator, the practical width that is used to obtain good radiation results is (5.3) where, is the velocity of light. The actual length of the patch can n ow be obtained from (5.4) The above calculations have been followed according to the formulas provided in Balanis [4]. 5.3 Calculations for the Designed Patch: Calculation for the effective width of the patch from (5.3) For using (5.1), Calculations for using equation (5.2), Calculation for L using equation (5.4), 5.4 Modeling of Micro Strip Antennas 5.4.1 Introduction Figure 5.3: Side View of Patch Antenna with Coaxial Feed One of the popular antenna types is patch antenna, which gains its name from the fact that it basically consists of a metal patch suspended over a ground plane. Patch antennas are simple to fabricate and easy to modify and customize. They are closely related to micro strip antennas, which are just patch antennas constructed on a dielectric substrate, usually employing the same sort of lithographic patterning used to fabricate printed circuit boards. The simplest patch antenna uses a half-wavelength-long patch and a larger ground plane. Large ground planes give better performance but of course make the antenna bigger. It isnt uncommon for the ground plane to be only modestly larger than the active patch. The current flow is along the direction of the feed wire, so the vector potential and thus the electric field follow the current, as shown by the arrow in the figure labeled E. A simple patch antenna of this type radiates a linearly polarized wave. The radiation can be regarded as being produced by the â€Å"radiating slots at top and bottom, or equivalently as a result of the current flowing on the patch and the ground plane. 5.5 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using Microwave Studio ® 5.5.1 Introduction Microwave Studio is a specialist tool for the fast accurate simulation of high frequency problems. Figure 5.4: Patch Antenna designed in Microwave Studio ® 5.5.2 Results The same S11 parameters are calculated and compared with the already carried out results, comparison is shown below. It can be seen that as compared to other Antenna Design Simulation software, results generated by Microwave Studio ® are more accurate due to its automatic grid and show more resemblance with the published results. It is assumed that due to the fact that the Microwave Studio ® generates the grid by itself therefore there are less chances of error and it generates more accurate results. Figure 5.5: S11 VS frequency generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.6: S-parameter Polar plot generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.7: S-Parameter Smith Chart generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.8: Far-Field Radiation Pattern generated by Microwave Studio ® 5.6 Designing Micro Strip Antenna 5.6.1 Design parameters Operating frequency = to be tested Polarization = Linear For the choice of printed circuit board we used FR-4 limited because of the unavailability of Teflon, which is not a good choice because of the value. The value of varies from 4 .2 to 4.8. The value of that we have used for calculations and design is 4.6. The thickness of FR-4 PCB is 1.6mm, which again is not a good choice as far as micro strip antennas, is concerned. So, the characteristic of our antenna are: Center frequency (fo): to be seen Dielectric constant (): 4.6 Dielectric thickness (h): 1.6 mm. Polarization = Linear Feeding Method = Probe feed 5.6.2 Fabrication Following steps are followed in the fabrication process: First the micro strip antenna is modeled on any image design software so that it can be printed on film sheet. Then the modeled antenna is printed on a film. The film is used in the etching of PCB (Printed Circuit Board). Next a hole is drilled for providing feed. Finally the connector is attached. 5.7 Results 5.7.1 Calculating the Ideal Feed Point Location The results tabulated below are obtained after varying the feed location along the length of the patch from the origin or center of patch to its right most edge. The coaxial probe feed used is designed to have a radius of 0.5mm. The table below shows the calculated results for different feed locations. By obtaining these results we can locate the ideal feeding point on our micro strip patch antenna, which is the point that yields the maximum, return loss. The feeding point calculated from out results comes out to be 10mm in the horizontal direction. The feed point and results are treated from the method provided in reference [8]. NO Feed Location (x, y) (mm) Center Frequency (GHz) Return Loss(RL) (dB) 1 (4,0) 0.880 -2.74 2 (5,0) 0.880 -4.41 3 (6,0) 0.880 -6.514 4 (7,0) 0.880 -9.186 5 (8,0) 0.880 -12.9 6 (10,0) 0.880 -28.63 Table 5.1 Effect of Feed locations on center frequency and return loss Frequency (GHz) Figure 5.9 Return Loss for feed located at different locations dB Figure 5.10 Magnified view of the above graph Frequency (GHz) dB The above plotted figure shows that as we increase distance of the feed point from the origin in the horizontal x direction the return loss increases and goes to level -25 dB which gives us the ideal feed point location. The magnified view of the figure shows this more clearly. 5.7.2 Obtained Results of the Fabricated Micro Strip Antenna After the fabrication of the designed micro strip patch antenna, the antenna has been tested on the network analyzer available in the lab. The obtained result for the return loss i.e. S11 is displayed below. Figure 5.11 Results obtained from Network Analyzer. Comment: The above figure clearly shows that the designed patch antenna is not resonant on the objective frequency which was 900 MHz Instead it shows better characteristics at frequency of almost 1.44 GHz and 1.83 GHz which were not the objective frequencies under consideration while designing the patch. The diagnosed reason behind such behavior of the antenna was the choice of incorrect relative permittivity () for the substrate material as the material was purchased from the open market. Chapter 6 Conclusion The objective of this project was to gain expertise over the computational electromagnetics and the modeling of antennas. Antennas were modeled by utilizing the commercial softwares. Initially a basic dipole antenna was modeled on XFDTD ® and the results were verified by comparing modeled results with published results using MATLAB ®. The next step was taken towards a much difficult and complex antenna i.e. micro strip antenna which was modeled by using both the software as mentioned above (XFDTD ® and Microwave Studio ®). Firstly just for the purpose of getting familiar with the softwares a paper of IEEE was implemented and the results were verified this process was carried out on XFDTD ®. Different kinds of micro strip antennas were modeled in XFDTD ® and Microwave Studio ® and there results were verified either by experimental data or by comparing the simulation with the published results. Later Microwave Studio ® was used to design the micro strip antenna for our desired frequency. After the modeling of the antenna we moved on to the fabrication process. A double sided PCB of fiberglass was used onto which the antenna is made. This fabricated antenna was then tested on the network analyzer to obtain the return loss and then in the antenna testing laboratory. The results were discussed with respect to the predicted results and commented on in the previous chapters. Hence as a result we can justifiably conclude that this project has helped us gain knowledge of computational electromagnetics and the design and fabrication of different types of ante nnas for various purposes and also the testing of the fabricated antennas. Further advancement in this project can be the designing of a micro strip array patch antenna and later enhancing it to Fractal antenna for desired frequencies and the fabrication of the antenna.

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Therefore, in terms of healthcare efficiency Australia is at the sixth position in 2014 which was a rank higher than 2013. The Healthcare and Pharmaceutical industry occupied the top position of the Better Life Index that is actually a measure of the social, physical and mental well being of the citizens (Stamatakis, Weiler Ioannidis, 2013). Thus, the remarkable standards of the Australian healthcare system will be beneficial in increasing the life expectancy of the people. As per government records, the average life expectancy of men would increase to 95.1 years and women would rise to 96.6 years by 2055. Thus, the policymakers are also aiming at finding ways that will enable Australia to offer world- class services in healthcare. Though spending from the government and societal perspective remains unsustainable for the time being but policymakers are trying all possible means to make the industry a major contributor to the countrys economy. Thus, the Healthcare and Pharmaceutical industry has not only been a major provider of employment but ranks fifth in contributing to Australian GDP. Thus, I can say that the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry in Australia is a major employment provider so there are ample career opportunities for me with a career choice as a pharmacist. Pharmacists are people with expertise in medicine who optimize outcomes related to health and minimize any misadventure related to medication. The growth in the Australian healthcare sector have encouraged many multinational drug companies to have a set up and thereby have an upcoming surge for pharmacist in areas related to drug information, medical training, and regulatory affairs (Spinewine, Fialov, Byrne, 2012). Industry Specific Mega Trends and Challenges: In recent times, there has been a sustained rise in cost to match up with Australias healthcare system. Thus, four megatrends are responsible for the demand and supply drive of healthcare in Australia. These trends are systemic forces responsible for shaping the future of Australian healthcare system. Further, the forces have the power to disrupt existing business and care models putting across various challenges and opportunities for the system (Gassmann, Reepmeyer von 2013). However, the trends are as described as follows: Improving Productivity through Growing Financial Imperative: There has been a long-term rise in the cost of healthcare that collides with current financial needs. Therefore, the accessibility and the width of the heath care services can be limited if it is mismanaged. Combined effort is thus required to modify the health system into an effective delivery model. Prevalence of Disease and Increase Tendency of Ageing The unhealthy lifestyle is responsible in increasing the rate of patients who are chronically ill. As a result, the heath systems are also finding it difficult to adapt to the changing means. Moreover, there is a strain in the public purses as the aged consume more and contribute less. This trend can however be managed through the increase in access of primary care, encouraging coordination in care and self -management and enhancing better care for chronic diseases. The New Consumer and Digital Health With the emergence of technology healthcare has reached unmatchable levels of analysis, automation and connectivity. Heath providers are now introducing common technologies in providing efficiency and quality services. Thus, consumers now have the power of managing their own health more effectively. Personalized Care and Precision Medicine Over the last decade, there has been a lack in the fulfillment of the promise for precision medicine. However, in the coming years, the advances in the disease heterogeneity and diagnostic technologies may lead to an accelerated impact on health outcomes and clinical practice. Challenges: Now if I speak of challenges then the Australian government may have to confront massive challenges in the delivery and funding of healthcare (Almarsdttir, Kaae Traulsen, 2014). The challenges are as follows: The changes in disease patterns and the increasing chronic illness amongst people have proved to be a challenge for the industry. In addition to this, changes in demography also impose a challenge to the healthcare industry. The need to ensure processes that are transparent, comprehensive and efficient for accessing technologies related to health and at the same time increasing cost of advances in medical science is also posing as a challenge to the government. There are constant problems faced with supply and distribution of the health workforce. The quality and safety of the health services remains an unrelenting concern. There has been uncertainty about balancing the private and public sectors and thereby ensure funding. Lack of recognition for further investment in childrens health There has been a lack of urban planning in promoting sustainable and healthy communities. PESTEL Analysis: The introduction of advanced technology, stringent regulatory controls, distribution channels, new advanced offerings, volatility of investors have questioned the survival of the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry thereby making paving way to a competitive environment. To understand the challenges and threats to the industry let us do a PESTEL analysis. Political Factors: Healthcare is becoming a concern globally because it is becoming increasingly expensive and is leading to a burden financially. Therefore, political attention is also increasing on pharmaceutical companies and regulations are becoming more stringent. Therefore, the healthcare and pharmaceutical sector must act proactively in responding and scanning the environmental policies and should make an effort to cling to corporate compliance and philanthropy and ethics related programs (Sharabati Fuqaha, 2014). Economical Factors: The healthcare and pharmaceutical industry has been a victim of mergers and acquisitions and the late 20 th century has been an evidence to it. The affect of these acquisitions has resulted in further research and thereby ensure a huge and comprehensive portfolio of products for the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry at large (Culverhouse Wohlmuth, 2012). Social Factors: Pharmaceutical companies are inclining to corporate social responsibility where they are increasingly addressing environmental and social concerns. I say this because ensuring good heath is a requirement not only socially but also personally. For instance, many healthcare and pharmaceutical industries have moved forward to provide aid to terminally ill patients suffering from AIDS as a social responsibility. Technological Factors: There has been innovation in technology that has directly influenced the pace of the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries (Doucette et al., 2012). The challenge lies in the fact that the industry must adapt itself to the needs of the market. Therefore, spending on research and environment has increased in order to encourage innovation. The healthcare and pharmaceutical industry must also adapt itself in a way so that it one knows it by the technology that it adopts. Environmental Factors: The increasing environmental agenda are making the key stakeholders of the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry more proactive and aware. In this respect, it is important of the healthcare and pharmaceutical companies to check out whether their business and marketing plans are aligning with the environmental issues. Legal Factors: There are also many legislative and regulatory restrictions imposed on the pharmaceutical industry (Irefin, Abdul-Azeez, Tijani, 2012). Countries have encouraged the litigation culture that has influenced the healthcare and pharmaceutical sector. Moreover, the legislative boundaries are also stretched upon by the emergence of the internet where patients demand are more inclined towards including rights for programs related to healthcare. Goals: In future, I want to see myself as a registered pharmacist working as a part of the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry. In Australia, it is very important for the entire pharmacist to do the registration with the Pharmacy Board of Australia (PBA) (Armour et al., 2013).Therefore, the first expectation of my employer is to get myself registered and abide by the code of conduct that forms the base for the ethical framework so that effective delivery of health services ensured. Therefore, at the first place my employer would want me to provide good care that includes working effectively with clients or patients, ensure shared decision making and working in co-ordination with other practitioners. The employer would also expect me to minimize risk, maintain ethical and professional behavior. Similarly, the clients would want me to take proper care of them, share problems, and understand conversation whenever required. My first priority as a pharmacist would be to get registered and work on ethical ground. Other duties are important to take care of. These include focusing on providing service to the patients for their betterment and remain in a position to overcome any adversity. At the same time, I should stay informed about the whereabouts of the company and ensure collaboration with other pharmacist for discussion on various issues. Then again, I look forward to fight any negative change that threatens my profession and undertake initiative for promoting myself. Professional Values, Ethics and Social Responsibility There are certain codes of ethics that I must follow as a pharmacist. According to the Pharmacy Board of Australia the main area of focus for a pharmacist include certain principles that needs to be followed in relation to the consumer and community, pharmacy and profession, business practice and other healthcare professionals (Rosenthal et al., 2016). From the consumer point of view, as a Pharmacist my first priority would be able to recognize the well being and health of the consumer. In addition to this, I must also respect the privacy and dignity of the consumers that includes respecting their individuality, urge for treatment and any confidentiality (Um, 2014). From the community point of view, I must provide service in a manner so that the community does not lose their respect for the profession. As a member of the community, I must ensure that my contribution to the public health is enhanced through use of quality medicines (Lowres et al., 2014). From Professional point of view, my responsibility lies in further advancing the profession through teaching, mentoring students, training staff, interns and colleagues. Along with this, I must have complete knowledge of the practice that I am doing. Moreover, I prefer to work under conditions that will ensure professional independence. From the business point of view, I believe that the practice done ethically and at the same time must take care in collaborating with other professionals for optimum health outcome Socio-cultural and Personal Competence In order to improve my socio-cultural and personal competence I should develop the ability to deal with people from varied cultural backgrounds in a community. Thus, understanding the cultural framework is very important for pharmacist (Mak, 2013). Managerial and Technical Competence With the emergence of internet and advanced technology, it is essential for a pharmacist to have a sound understanding of the technology used in various medical procedures. Moreover, to continue as a pharmacist in the industry, I must have the self- management skills of prioritizing work in an appropriate manner and able to take responsibility. Moreover, I should also understand the management principles of the organization that I wish to work for in future ( Johnson, 2012). Targets for Development Thus, I can improve my socio-cultural competence by developing a proper mindset that not all people come from same backgrounds. Therefore, while practicing I must not forget that cultural diversity will prevail in a community. Moreover, patients who come from different backgrounds possess different beliefs about medications and medical conditions. As a pharmacist, I must initiate a patient centric approach to understand them and make the ambience conducive and trustworthy so that they can speak out their problems (Lim, Z Anderson McGrath, 2012). Now to develop the management and technical competence I should invest certain amount of time to learn the technicalities involved with the operation of various machines that I might require in future. Although, I am punctual and serious about what I do but since I choose to be in a public service profession so I must work on the time management and develop a personality that increases peoples dependence on me. Proposed Professional Development Program In order to be in a profession as a pharmacist, I decide to develop insert certain self- management skills and at the same time ensure that I understand certain complex technicalities that are a result of the modern technology. I plan to work as a pharmacist so my first target would be to get myself registered with the Pharmacist Board of Australia (PAB) and abide by its code of ethics in performance of my work (Mak, 2013). Competencies are a cluster of commitments, skills, knowledge and abilities necessary for effective job performance. The level of competences however determines the extent to which a person is able posses the skill sets, abilities and knowledge for effective performance (Ghanbari, 2012). Currently I possess competencies in six domain that include personal skills, safe and rational use of medicines, ensuring public health, ethical professional practice, supply of medicines, skill set related to the organization. The definition of the competency target is the key contact for the whole organization done with the help of the reporting tool. In the process, the maximum and minimum targets per competency defined by the key contact, which are then tested by means of the assessment procedure (Fernandez et al., 2012). My learning and development plan includes: Through self-analysis, I can take care of self-management skills that I need to work upon for the time being like punctuality and organizing ability However, for the learning the technicalities I need to undergo certain training programs organized by the company in order to have a sound understanding of the concepts. The culturally competent pharmacists make sure that they expand their cultural resources and knowledge through the adoption of various service models so that they can meet various ethnic and racial groups. Figure1: Improving Cultural Competence. Source: (Powell Sears, 2012) Thus, cultural diversity is common phenomenon in a community. Therefore, as a pharmacist it is very necessary to consider the cultural backgrounds of patients while providing care and counselling. SWOT Analysis The SWOT refers to the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats in the profession of pharmacist (Hatah et al., 2012). The analysis is as follows: Strengths A substantial amount of work experience can act as a positive factor in this field as they allow the pharmacist to deal complex situations. An educated and professional with good technical expertise is also a blessing for the community Weakness For a starter, the profession can be quite a challenging task as it deals with public service Then lack of job knowledge can also act as a negative aspect Opportunities Here, since it is necessary to collaborate with other professionals therefore one can strengthen ones network well The professional also allows us to learn certain technical expertise that gives us an option to use it as and when required. Threats There is cutthroat competition in the field; therefore, it is very difficult to make a mark. After a certain experience in the field, there are certain education and training obstacles. Performance Indicators Figure: Performance Indicators Source: (Moullin et al., 2013) Conclusion: The essay concludes by giving a close look at the performance indicators. There is SWOT analyses and personal development plan laid out with stress on various competency.. 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